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The “Freshman 15” and Chemical Design of Earth’s Air

Ryan T. Hayes

Could there be a way to discern acts of intelligence from natural causes in the chemical world? This article addresses the initial aspects of such an analysis from a chemical approach.

I was warned about the “Freshman 15” when I started college. The reference is to 15 pounds of weight gain freshmen may acquire because of the life-changing experience of leaving home, fending for themselves, sitting for hours doing homework, and late-night snacking. The actual freshman weight gain may be only about three pounds,1 but there are 15 pounds (6.8 kilograms) all around you that you don’t want to lose! This has to do with the weight of the Earth’s air and how specifically suited this is for life on a planetary body. What is so special about this number, and how does this relate to life? There is much to consider in the wind’s weight as we explore the 15 pounds all around us.

CHEMICAL DESIGN

How can one tell if chemicals that are in a collection (Earth, humans, bacteria, air, etc.) are the result of time, forces, energy, and chance—or the design of a creative director and sustainer? This concept is a subset of the Intelligent Design (ID) scientific-research program.2 I believe Seventh-day Adventists should understand, contribute to, and incorporate ID into our curriculum and thinking especially as it builds on scriptural information. ID has been declared, incorrectly in my view, as anti-science.3 Great effort has been invested into opposing it and rooting it out of the public school curriculum and peer-reviewed science.4

I’ve been practicing chemistry for more than 30 years and wondered if there was a way to develop some criteria to decide between chance and intelligent design in chemistry. Chance and design are loaded words. I’ll just define chance as something that could happen spontaneously, given the right conditions, energy, and time. Design(ed) in the emerging field of Intelligent Design is a term that indicates a mind at work manipulating substances beyond the reach of time, energy, and chance. Many areas of science look for work of intelligence (or a mind), especially as it relates to a crime science (accident versus intent), archeology (rock versus tool), search for extraterrestrial intelligence (noise versus information), corporate accounting (fraud versus legal activity), and broken vases (earthquake versus kids). Could there be a way to distinguish between acts of intelligence and natural causes in the chemical world as well? I believe there is a way to do this, and this article attempts to address the initial aspects of this type of analysis from the discipline of chemistry.

ARE CAKES NATURAL?

Think about how a chemist might detect design and start to rule out chance. For example, cakes (and other products like lasagna, spaghetti, samosas, etc.) do not occur in nature although all the basic ingredients are derived from nature. There must be chemical criteria that can be used to decide between naturally occurring and designed chemical systems. The requirements to bake cakes illustrate design in chemistry. In baking cakes, most people focus on the list of ingredients. But there is so much more to making cakes than ingredients. You need an oven, mixing bowl, spoons, cups, and other various tools. This is getting closer to understanding the role of an intelligent designer—otherwise also known as a baker, when it comes making cakes.

Below is a list of 10 separate items that must be considered in making a cake. I’ve developed this list to understand recipes and the ingredients involved with life from the simplest to the most complex forms.

MORE THAN INGREDIENTS

It isn’t enough to have all the right ingredients. One must have a way to exclude and eliminate wrong ingredients from getting into the batter. Our minds and bodies easily reach for and grab the substances that meet our culinary needs. Nature doesn’t have that luxury nor does it have wisdom of knowing the recipe! During the process of selection, the baker avoids or rejects many wrong ingredients that could destroy his or her creation. A recipe is then followed to make sure the proper amounts of the correct ingredients are added and in the proper order. Once the correct ingredients are mixed in a container using some tools, the cake is ready for a pan and baked at the correct temperature for just the right time. It seems so easy until you take away the tools, oven, and recipe. How about making a cake on the beach of a warm little pond without directions?

I think it is safe to assume that recipes do not self-assemble into cake, lasagna, or samosas. Yet, that is what we are being asked to believe when we are told that life started from the right ingredients, temperature, time, and a little luck over millions of years. Common sense tells us that there are chemical mixtures that are out of reach of time and change. There are certainly chemical mixtures that happen naturally like piles of dust and debris, scale on faucets, and crumbs in the bottom of the toaster oven. Since the simplest forms of life have many ingredients, what is the likelihood of 4,000 ingredients simultaneously coming together in the chemical mess of a pre-biotic Earth?5

In this simple analysis of baking, one of the principles that emerges from chemical design is that proportions and amounts are critical to the recipe’s success. Not too much and not too little, since both extremes could lead to dire consequences. Exploring what happens when there is too much or too little is very helpful in revealing how an ingredient influences the entire recipe. If we find that we are dealing with a chemical system that comfortably lies in the middle of these two barriers, then this starts to point to a designing influence, and the likelihood of chance producing this situation is greatly diminished.

EARTH’S AIR

Consider the implications of chemical design (i.e., too much or too little) on the weight of Earth’s air.

When scientists talk about gases that make up an atmosphere, two main features emerge: (1) the type and amount of each gas in the air; and (2) the total amount of these gases; i.e.., pressure. Earth’s dry atmosphere has four main ingredients: nitrogen, oxygen, argon, and carbon dioxide. There are more types of gases but these four account for 99.99 percent of the weight and composition of Earth’s air. All these gases add up to weigh “1 atmosphere” or 1 atm. But, in other units, the weight of Earth’s air is 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi). Let’s round this off to 15 psi. It’s hard to imagine that the 60 miles of air on top of our heads in a 1” x 1” square, weighs about 15 pounds, but that is the air pressure at sea level on Earth. Since that weight is all around our bodies, we do not feel it pressing down on us. What’s so special about this pressure level?

THE WIND’S WEIGHT

It is important to know what the atmospheres of other planets contain in terms of their ingredients and total amount of gases. Venus is about the same size as Earth, and it has nearly the same gravitational pull. Gravity holds us to the planet, but it also keeps the gases in our atmosphere from escaping. If a planet is very large, like Jupiter, it can hold on to almost every type of gas—including lightweight, explosive hydrogen gas. If planets are too small, with low gravity, like Mercury and Mars, then it is easier for them to forever lose their atmospheric gases to outer space. Venus has an atmosphere composed mainly of carbon dioxide (96 percent) with a small amount of nitrogen (3.5 percent).6 The clouds of Venus are made of sulfuric acid, which produces a runaway greenhouse effect. Venus is a dry planet, with no water on its surface or in the clouds. The weight of Venus’ atmosphere is about 90 times heavier than Earth’s air.

There is no reason to suspect that any particular atmospheric “weight” should occur on an Earth-size rocky planet. Consider the Martian atmosphere, which is about 100 times less massive (thinner) than Earth’s atmosphere and is composed of 95.32 percent carbon dioxide, 2.7 percent nitrogen, 1.6 percent argon, and 0.13 percent oxygen.7 The atmosphere is so thin that this presents a problem when landing objects on the Martian surface. NASA uses parachutes, thrusters, and bouncing-to-land equipment, compared to landing objects on Earth, where parachutes are sufficient.

In our Solar System alone, we have two good examples of rocky, terrestrial planets with wildly varying atmospheres. The more “natural” composition appears to be carbon dioxide and nitrogen, rather than what we have on Earth. More investigations of exoplanets by space telescopes8 and computational planet-formation models9 are needed to ascertain what is a natural versus unnatural atmosphere. Currently, Earth is looking quite rare, improbable, and lucky.10

ASTEROID DEFENSE SYSTEM

The invisible air is our great protector, as it does many things to safeguard living systems. One protective aspect is the destruction of incoming space debris like asteroids (large rocks) and meteoroids (small rocks). As space rocks speed through the atmosphere, they encounter significant friction with air molecules, causing extreme heating that explodes these rocks into pebbles and dust. You can feel this type of friction heat simply by rubbing your hands together. Roughly 100 metric tons of space dust enters Earth’s atmosphere every day that result from the burning up of meteriod from friction with the air.11 About twice a year, large asteroids (>4 m in diameter) enter and burn up in the atmosphere causing explosions that are similar to or even larger than the atomic bombs of World War II!12 The Jet Propulsion Laboratories in California have been monitoring these fireballs since 1988.13 However, our chances of dying from being struck by an asteroid are between one in 700,000 and one in 1.6 million, so don’t worry about it too much!14 Earth’s atmosphere is doing a great job of protecting life on the planet. If there was less air, more explosions would occur on the surface, thus damaging and destroying more life forms. Conversely, if there was more air, life on Earth would be better protected. This deficiency could lead one to wonder if our air is poorly designed, since more weight would offer better protection. But, as with all intelligently designed systems, another major factor needs to be considered that counterbalances this protection. We could take the added element of safety to walk outside with a helmet, safety goggles, knee pads, and pillows taped to our bodies but this limits other factors like mobility and vision. Intelligent designs find a way to find an optimal balance between opposing factors.

BOILING OVER

The wind’s weight control provides another incredibly important life-permitting parameter. Air pressure regulates the air-water connection. Water is the only substance carbon-based life forms can use as its solvent inside their cells.15 But, for life to exist, liquid water is crucial. No other liquid or phase of water (solid or gaseous) can work. How does the wind’s weight affect water’s properties? The most affected property is water’s boiling point, which controls its evaporation rate. Places on Earth with higher altitudes have less air (that is, greater distance between air molecules), and this changes water’s boiling point. With less air, water’s boiling point is lowered. At an altitude of one mile, water boils around 94oC (201.2oF) contrasted with 100oC (212oF) at sea level. At the peak of Mt. Everest, the boiling point of water is around 72oC (162oF).

Less air pressure makes it easier for water to evaporate and transform into a gaseous state and remain as a gas. All of this influences the water cycle. With less air pressure (or amount of air), more of Earth’s water would become, and stay as, gas. Thus, the water content of Earth’s atmosphere would increase and lead to a runaway greenhouse effect, since water vapor is one of the most effective greenhouse gases.16 Air pressure controls the water cycle. The water cycle is critical for the survival of life on planet Earth. It is the major process that purifies water so that it can be utilized by plants, animals, and humans. Higher air pressure requires more heat to evaporate and recycle water, which would effectively shut down the water cycle. Without this distillation process, the concentrations of mineral salts would continually increase in all bodies of water, turning all freshwater into dead seas, perhaps within thousands of years, considering current coastal erosion rates.17

SEEING THE INVISIBLE

Just by pulling back a little of the chemical curtain, we can see the invisible connection between Earth’s air pressure with two life-permitting properties: space-debris protection and water’s boiling point. But how much flexibility is there in this “weight”? How much more greenhouse gases can be present before runaway global warming sets in? A change from 416 ppm to 430 ppm (0.0014% change) is of great concern among climatologists.18 It appears that the atmosphere is near the upper end of tolerance for changes in weight and greenhouse gases in our atmosphere.

Chemical design thinking can help us explore the purpose of the chemical components in their relationship to living organisms. This thinking does not have to be limited to the weight of the air. It can be extended to each ingredient in the air, to the biochemicals that make up life, and to the components of Earth’s surface. Purpose and design emerge as we evaluate the not-too-much and not-too-little principles. Of course, there is much more to consider—as in the baking of a cake—in producing a excellent product than merely the proper amounts of ingredients. This type of thinking has invigorated my daily life, my undergraduate classes, and my research. Gone are the days of worrying about the “Freshman 15.” But without those 15 pounds of air all around us, our planet would not be habitable. Our planet is “stuck” with the 15 pounds, and for that we can be grateful. It is evidence pointing to a benevolent Creator who protects and provides with every breath that we take!

Ryan T. Hayes (PhD, Northwestern University, Illinois, U.S.A.) is Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry at Andrews University, Berrien Springs, Michigan, U.S.A. His research is in analytical chemistry, nanotechnology, and spectroscopy. E-mail: [email protected].

Recommended Citation

Ryan T. Hayes, "The “Freshman 15” and Chemical Design of Earth’s Air," Dialogue 35:3 (2023): 10-14.

NOTES AND REFERENCES

  1. Nicole L. Mihalopoulos, Peggy Auinger, and Jonathan D. Klein, “The Freshman 15: Is It Real?” Journal of American College Health 56:5 (2008): 531–533. doi.10.3200/JACH.56.5.531-534; Claudia Vadeboncoeur; Nicholas Townsend, and Charlie Foster, “A MetaAnalysis of Weight Gain in First Year University Students: Is Freshman 15 a Myth?” BioMed Central Obesity 2:1 (May 28, 2015): 1–9. doi.10.1186/s40608-015-0051-7.
  2. The theory of Intelligent Design (ID) holds that certain features of the universe and of living things are best explained by an intelligent cause, not an undirected process such as natural selection. More details on the science of Intelligent Design can be found here: https://intelligentdesign.org/whatisid/.
  3. Many secular institutions and organizations have unfairly and incorrectly declared ID to be unscientific or psuedoscientific. See https://undsci.berkeley.edu/intelligent-design-is-it-scientific/; https://www.aclu.org/other/frequently-asked-questions-aboutintelligent-design; and https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligent_ design.
  4. Alan D. Attie et al., “Defending Science Education Against Intelligent Design: A Call to Action,” The Journal of Clinical Investigation 116:5 (May 1, 2006): 1,134-1,138. doi.10.1172/ JCI28449; Jim Giles, “Peer-reviewed Paper Defends Theory of Intelligent Design,” Nature (2004): 431114. doi.10.1038/431114a.
  5. Bruce Alberts et al., Chapter 2, “The Chemical Components of a Cell,” Molecular Biology of the Cell, 4th ed. (New York: Garland Science, 2002).
  6. Nola Taylor Tillman, “Venus’ Atmosphere: Composition, Climate and Weather,” Space.com (October 18, 2018): https://www.space.com/18527-venus-atmosphere.html.
  7. Daisy Dobrijevic, “Mars’ Atmosphere: Facts About Composition and Climate,” Space.com (February 25, 2022): https://www.space.com/16903-mars-atmosphere-climate-weather.html.
  8. Ryan T. Hayes, “Searching for Life Beyond Our System,” Adventist Review (November 5, 2022): https://adventistreview.org/magazine-article/searching-for-life-beyond-our-system/.
  9. Andre Izidoro and Laurette Piani, “Origin of Water in the Terrestrial Planets: Insights From Meteorite Data and Planet Formation Models,” Elements 18:3 (2022): 181–186.
  10. Hugh Ross, Improbable Planet: How Earth Became Humanity’s Home (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Baker Books, 2016); David Waltham, Lucky Planet: Why Earth Is Exceptional—and What That Means for Life in the Universe (New York: Basic Books, 2014): Peter D. Ward and Donald Brownlee, Rare Earth: Why Complex Life Is Uncommon in the Universe (New York: Springer, 2000).
  11. Ben Howes, How Much Dust Falls on Earth Each Year? Does It Affect Our Planet’s Gravity? Astronomy (July 28, 2014): https://astronomy.com/magazine/ask-astro/2014/07/spacedebris#:~:text=Scientists%20estimate%20that%20roughly%20 100,dust%20collected%20on%20Earth's%20surface.
  12. “The Frequency of Large Meteor Impact”—Space Math @ NASA (n.d.): https://spacemath.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/9Page26.pdf.
  13. See https://cneos.jpl.nasa.gov/fireballs/.
  14. Robert Roy Britt, “Odds of Dying: What You Should Really Worry About,” Medium (January 15, 2019): https://robertroybritt.medium.com/odds-of-dying-what-you-should-really-worryabout-cc761901565b.
  15. Michael Denton, The Wonder of Water: Water’s Profound Fitness for Life on Earth and Mankind (Seatle: Discovery Institute Press, 2017).
  16. Steven C. Sherwood, Vishal Dixit, and Chryséis Salomez, “The Global Warming Potential of Near-surface Emitted Water Vapour,” Environmental Research Letters 13, No. 10 (September 27, 2018): 104006.
  17. Monte Fleming Stories About Earth’s History: A Geologist’s Dissent From Deep Time (Independently published, 2021).
  18. Calculated from statistics in Andrew Moseman and Noelle Selin, “What Is the Ideal Level of Carbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere for Human Life?” MIT Climate Portal (May 18, 2021): https://climate.mit.edu/ask-mit/what-ideal-level-carbon-dioxide-atmospherehuman-life.